Additional Information

Vishnupad Temple: 

• Architecture: Architecturally, the temple is around 100 feet tall and has 44 pillars.
• Devotees visit the temple during pitra paksh, a period in the Hindu calendar when people take part in rituals to remember their ancestors.

Mahabodhi Temple

• The temple stands to the east of the Mahabodhi Tree, where Gautam Buddha is believed to have attained nirvana. The temple has a unique shape and a height of 170 feet.
• It is located in Bodh Gaya, in central Bihar, on the banks of the Niranjana River.
• The Mahabodhi Temple Complex is the first temple built by Emperor Asoka in the 3rd century B.C., and the present temple dates from the 5th–6th centuries.
• It is one of the earliest Buddhist temples built entirely in brick, still standing, from the late Gupta period and it is considered to have had significant influence in the development of brick architecture over the centuries.
• It was recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2002.

Solution

• Lightning strikes are most common in regions that experience intense convection and have high moisture content in the atmosphere, which helps build up electrical charge.
• Tropical zones (Condition 1) are known for strong convection due to high heat and moisture, making them prone to thunderstorms and lightning.
• Hot and dry climates (Condition 4) may seem less likely, but deserts (like those in the tropics) can also experience lightning strikes, especially during dry thunderstorms, where lightning occurs without significant rainfall.
• Conditions 2 and 3 (cold and humid climates, downward air motion) are less conducive to lightning formation. Cold climates usually don’t have the strong convection needed, and downward air motion (subsidence) generally suppresses storm development.

Additional Information

What is lightning?

Scientifically, lightning is a rapid and massive discharge of electricity in the atmosphere some of which is directed towards earth. The discharges are generated in giant moisture-bearing clouds that are 10-12 km tall. The base of these clouds typically lie within 1-2 km of the Earth’s surface, while the top is 12-13 km away. Temperatures in the top of these clouds are in the range of –35° to –45°C.

As water vapour moves upward in the cloud, the falling temperature causes it to condense. As they move to temperatures below 0°C, the water droplets change into small ice crystals. They continue to move up, gathering mass until they are so heavy that they start to fall to Earth. This leads to a system in which, simultaneously, smaller ice crystals are moving up and bigger crystals are coming down.

Collisions follow and trigger the release of electrons, a process that is very similar to the generation of sparks of electricity. As the moving free electrons cause more collisions and more electrons, a chain reaction ensues. This process results in a situation in which the top layer of the cloud gets positively charged, while the middle layer is negatively charged. The electrical potential difference between the two layers is huge, of the order of a billion to 10 billion volts. In very little time, a massive current, of the order of 100,000 to a million amperes, starts to flow between the layers.

While the Earth is a good conductor of electricity, it is electrically neutral. However, in comparison to the middle layer of the cloud, it becomes positively charged. As a result, about 15%-20% of the current gets directed towards the Earth as well. It is this flow of current that results in damage to life and property on Earth.

Direct lightning strikes are rare but even indirect strikes are fatal given the immense amount of charge involved.

Additional Information

State of the World’s Forests 2024 Report:

• It is published by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations.
• It provides a comprehensive analysis of forest conditions and trends. 
• Highlights of the Report:
  • It highlighted a decline in deforestation rates compared to previous decades, with several countries showing significant improvements. 
  • The data also reveals a disturbing picture of the challenges forests face due to climate change.
  • In 2020, the global forest covered approximately 4.1 billion hectares (ha), or 31 percent of the land area.
  • Russia, Brazil, Canada, the United States of America, and China account for 54 percent of the global forest area, in descending order. 
  • Another 10 countries, including Australia, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Indonesia, Peru, and India, contribute about two-thirds of the global forest area. 
  • The report estimated that between 1990 and 2020, approximately 420 million ha of forest were converted to land use.
  • However, deforestation rates fell from 15.8 million ha per year between 1990 and 2002 to 10.2 million ha between 2015 and 2020. 
  • Deforestation rates in Africa were 4.41 million ha, 2.95 million in South America, and 2.24 million in Asia.
  • It also noted 10 countries recording annual gains in forest area in 2020, which include China, Australia, India, Chile, Viet Nam, Turkey, the United States of America, France, Italy, and Romania. 
• India gained 2,66,000 hectares of forest annually from 2010-2020, ranking third globally in forest area gains.
• The global mangrove area was recorded to be 14.8 million ha, out of which South and Southeast Asia contributed almost 44 percent of the total global area. 
  • The rate of gross global mangrove loss decreased by 23 percent between the two recent decades (2000-2010 and 2010-2020), and the rate of gain in mangrove area also decreased slightly.
  • Asia was the major contributor to mangrove loss and gains.
  • It is estimated that about 340-370 million ha (equivalent to less than half the land area of Australia) of the earth’s land area is impacted by annual fire.
  • Satellite data revealed that total fires in 2023 emitted 6,687 megatons of carbon dioxide globally, more than double the emissions contributed by the European Union by burning fossil fuels.

Additional Information

• Windfall tax is a higher tax imposed on specific industries when they make unusual and above-average profits.
• The term “windfall” refers to an unexpected rise in profits, and the tax on windfall gains is known as the windfall tax. 
• The increase in profits is not attributed to any expansion or investment strategy of a business but to a favourable external factor for which the business is not responsible.
• A windfall tax is levied on industries or businesses that make disproportionate profits during unexpected situations like commodity shortages, wars, pandemics, changes in government policy, etc. 
• The most common industries that fall target to windfall gains tax include oil, gas, and mining.
• Some individual taxes—such as inheritance tax or taxes on lottery or game-show winnings—can also be construed as a windfall tax.

Objective:

• The primary objective of windfall taxes is to appropriate a portion of these extraordinary profits, which are perceived to exceed normal returns, for the public good. 
• Governments assert that these profits are not solely due to the taxed entity’s efforts but also due to external factors, justifying the redistribution of such gains to benefit society as a whole.
• It is also used as a supplementary revenue stream for the government.

Additional Information

• Known as the ‘Quadrilateral Security Dialogue’ (QSD), the Quad is an informal strategic forum comprising four nations, namely — United States of America (USA), India, Australia and Japan. 
• One of the primary objectives of the Quad is to work for a free, open, prosperous and inclusive Indo-Pacific region.
• The group met for the first time in 2007 on the sidelines of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (Asean).
•  It is considered an alliance of maritime democracies, and the forum is maintained by meetings, semi-regular summits, information exchanges and military drills of all the member countries.

Formation of QUAD

• Since its establishment in 2007, the representatives for the four-member nations have met periodically. Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe was the first to pitch the idea for the formation of Quad in 2007. 
• In fact, its origins can be traced back to the evolution of Exercise Malabar and the 2004 Tsunami when India conducted relief and rescue operations for itself and neighbouring countries and was later joined by the US, Japan and Australia. Therefore, China issued formal diplomatic protests to the members of the Quad.
• In 2012, the Japanese PM emphasised the idea of Asia’s ‘Democratic Security Diamond’ comprising the US, Japan, India and Australia. It was in 2017 when the first official talks under the Quad took place in the Philippines.

Principles of Quad

• The motive behind the Quad is to keep the strategic sea routes in the Indo-Pacific free of any military or political influence. It is basically seen as a strategic grouping to reduce Chinese domination. The core objective of the Quad is to secure a rules-based global order, freedom of navigation and a liberal trading system. The coalition also aims to offer alternative debt financing for nations in the Indo-Pacific region.
• The Quad leaders exchange views on contemporary global issues such as critical and emerging technologies, connectivity and infrastructure, cyber security, maritime security, humanitarian assistance, disaster relief, climate change, pandemic and education.